Copenhagen: building an open and scalable system
Copenhagen’s approach demonstrates how a city can actively shape the conditions for reuse.
The current system, operated by New Loop, was launched in 2025 and is being developed under the Change(K)now project. It is based on an open, interoperable deposit system, where any operator can participate as long as their packaging meets the system criteria.
Several design principles stand out:
- Open system architecture: the system has been designed and built for interoperability, meaning that any new reuse provider can join the system.
- Flexible return infrastructure: there are currently around 34 easily relocatable return points in the city centre
- Low-tech, scalable solutions: solar-powered, movable return machines enable easy deployment and adaptation
- No app or cash required: the system is designed to be as simple as possible for users, relying on bank cards, and deposits are not user-specific, allowing anyone to return items.
A key role of the city has been to enable the system through public procurement and initial funding. Businesses can receive financial support (typically 100,000–300,000 DKK) to transition to reuse, lowering the barrier to entry.
At this stage, the system is still evolving. Performance data is limited, but early indications highlight a strong focus on usability, interoperability and scalability. The ambition is to gradually transition towards a self-sustaining commercial model.
The system is also expanding beyond cafés into events and public services, including pilots in schools, where reusable containers are used for centrally prepared meals.
Aarhus: a mature city-led reuse system
While Copenhagen is in an early scaling phase, Aarhus provides a more mature example of a city-led reuse system.
Launched in 2024 as a three-year collaboration between the City of Aarhus and TOMRA, the system was built on a clear starting point: nearly 48% of waste in public bins consisted of food and beverage packaging.
Key results after two years of operation include:
- Around 1.8 million reused containers
- Return rates reaching ~88%, with the most recent number being over 90%
- More than 20 tonnes of waste avoided
- Less than 1% of reusable cups end up in city waste bins
Events have played a major role in scaling the system. During the Aarhus Festival alone, approximately 150,000 rotations were recorded with return rates as high as 94%, demonstrating that reuse systems can perform effectively even in high-volume environments.
User acceptance has also been strong:
- 89% of users report satisfaction
- Only 4% express dissatisfaction
- 40% would prefer reuse to become the default option instead of the single-use options
The system is based on a centralised washing and logistics model, with deposit-return infrastructure and digital tracking ensuring traceability and operational control.
However, the system is not yet fully self-sufficient and still relies on public funding. This highlights a key challenge: reuse must compete with artificially low-cost single-use systems, where many environmental costs, but also the collection and waste processing costs, remain externalised.
Two approaches, shared lessons
Copenhagen and Aarhus represent two different, but complementary approaches:
- Copenhagen focuses on creating an open, interoperable platform with low barriers to entry and high scalability
- Aarhus demonstrates a more centralised, optimised system with strong public coordination and measurable performance
Despite these differences, both systems converge on a set of critical success factors:
- Convenience is decisive: both for consumers and businesses. This cannot go without highlighting: it is crucial that the system is pain-free, easy to use and understand, and fast.
- Deposit systems work: they are essential to achieving high return rates. Many pilots are too short in duration – the Aarhus example has shown that it takes some time to build the return rates, and the market gets “saturated” with the packaging resulting in fewer people keeping the packaging, instead of returning it.
- Public sector plays a key role: particularly through procurement, coordination and early-stage funding. Municipalities have a key role in waste systems as well, so why not also in reuse?
- Behavioural change happens at the point of sale: if reuse is offered as the default, adoption increases significantly. It’s a lot about attitudes and how the reuse is positioned.
Implications for the 4R ecosystem
From a 4R perspective, the key takeaway is clear: reuse is not primarily a materials question, it is a system design challenge operating within a non-level playing field.
To scale reuse, we need to address:
- Infrastructure: return networks, washing capacity and logistics. Reuse is competing with single-use that have long established existing infrastructure in place.
- Business models and a level playing field: aligning costs with single-use alternatives, removing harmful subsidies from single-use to level the playing field
- Policy frameworks: creating incentives and correcting market distortions
- Collaboration: bringing cities, businesses and solution providers into shared systems
Both Copenhagen and Aarhus show that progress is possible, but also that scaling reuse requires coordinated action across the entire value chain, while achieving a profitable, self-sustaining business model remains challenging in the current operating environment.
As reuse systems continue to develop across Europe, the question is no longer whether reuse can work, but how quickly it can be made the new normal.
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